Words ICOMOS Philippines:
Giuseppe Luigi Abcede,
Junnel Zuniga, Maria Carissa Veloso,
Maria Cristina Paterno, and Maria Karina Garilao
Introduction Patrick Kasingsing
Images Retratista Manila
Editor’s note: We received encouraging updates from Tina Periquet and Dominic Galicia, tireless heritage advocates and champions of the Pasig River, about an ongoing push by the Heritage Conservation Society and ICOMOS Philippines for a joint petition to the NCCA: to declare the historic river a National Cultural Treasure. It’s a move seen as a much-needed safeguard against the many forces threatening the river’s cultural and natural ecosystem — the most serious of which is the proposed PAREX (Pasig River Expressway), a 19.37 km elevated roadway that would have been built over and along the river’s path. The project is under review after public outcry but hasn’t been fully scrapped.
Meanwhile, there’s hope: three sections of the Pasig River Esplanade, a 1.4-kilometer stretch of what will be a 25-km project led by WTA Architecture and Design Studio and PGAA, have officially opened.
“A big boost to the effort [for the joint declaration] is that there already is a substantive Statement of Significance for the Pasig River, prepared by ICOMOS Philippines in March 2023,” Periquet shares. “Many thanks to the NCCA for their support and encouragement (‘You cannot tell the story of the Philippines without the Pasig River.’).”
With the permission of Galicia, we are publishing the full and original Statement of Significance document produced by ICOMOS Philippines here for public reference. You may peruse the original file here.
The editor stands firmly behind the efforts to uphold the historical, cultural, and natural integrity of the Pasig River. Its waters have witnessed the birth of a nation and still fight to nurture it, through every cycle of loss and renewal. The so-called convenience promised by the expressway would serve only a few, while erasing the deeper histories and biological life the river has carried for centuries, and could still carry if given the chance.
#NoToPAREX #YesToPasigRiver
Case for Nomination
One of the objectives of R. A. 10066 or the National Cultural Heritage Act of 2009 is to “protect, preserve, conserve and promote the nation’s cultural heritage, its property and histories, and the ethnicity of local communities.” It is further stated “The State shall likewise endeavor to create a balanced atmosphere where the historic past coexists in harmony with modern society. It shall approach the problem of conservation in an integrated and holistic manner, cutting across all relevant disciplines and technologies. The State shall further administer the heritage resources in a spirit of stewardship for the inspiration and benefit of the present and future generations.”
The Pasig River, the heritage buildings along its banks, and the few remaining open spaces must be viewed as a single cultural property. RA 10066 defines cultural property as “all products of human creativity by which a people and a nation reveal their identity, including churches, mosques and other places of religious worship, schools and natural history specimens and sites, whether public or privately-owned, movable or immovable, and tangible or intangible.” Viewed singularly, the River, Heritage Buildings and Open Spaces are nationally significant due to the historical, aesthetic, and social values possessed between them which diminishes when one of the three elements is removed.
It is recommended that the Pasig River, extant heritage buildings and select open spaces along the bank be declared a Heritage Zone by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, and a National Cultural Treasure by the NCCA for its outstanding historical, social and artistic value as presented below.
ICOMOS Philippines references NHCP Resolution No. 19, S of 2012 Declaring the Manila Bay and Waterfront from Del Pan Bridge to the Cultural Center of the Philippines a National Historical Landmark as setting a precedent for the declaration of Pasig River, the heritage structures along its banks and select open spaces as a single heritage site.
Statement of Significance
The Pasig River is a 27-kilometer-long body of water that connects Laguna de Bay to Manila Bay. The River has an average width of 91 meters and its depth varies from 0.5 to 5.5 meters depending on the tide. Its deepest sections, between the bridges of Guadalupe and C6, are measured at 4.5 meters. Its shallowest section is at the mouth of Manila Bay. As the only river channel that flows through Metro Manila, it is bounded by the cities of Taguig, Pasig, Makati, Mandaluyong, and Manila. The Pasig River and sections of its banks are highly significant on both the National and Regional levels.
It is intimately connected to the history and development of the country, from pre-colonial times to the present. The Pasig River is a character-defining feature of Manila and surrounding cities. The Pasig River is singular for its association with the birth of the Philippine State, and the development of the nation’s capital. Its significance places it on par with the Seine, Thames, Danube, and Chao Phraya to name a few.
The Pasig River is historically significant as the primary transportation, communication, and trade route for Tagalogs since at least 900 AD. The River connected Tagalog settlements as far inland as the shores of Laguna de Bay with traders from other parts of Southeast Asia. Its use for trade, transportation, and communication remained significant well into the American colonial period, 1000 years later. Today, Metro Manilans still use the Pasig River as an alternative mode of Public Transportation. Archaeological excavations along the banks and within the vicinity of the River have yielded artifacts attesting to the river’s role in the development of human communities in the area.
Comparable to the Seine, Thames and Chao Phraya, the Pasig River and its banks have been a source of identity and cultural inspiration for hundreds of years. The ethnonym Tagalog, which was rooted either from Taga-ilog (river settlers) or Taga-álog (settlers of the flooded areas beside rivers) most likely originate around the Pasig River area where many communities have been settling. Artistic and literary giants such as José Honorato Lozano, Jose Rizal, Nicanor Abelardo, and Fernando Amorsolo have created works inspired by the Pasig River. The River remains a source of inspiration to this day with filmmakers and writers recognized locally and internationally for their Pasig River-inspired creations. For centuries, artists have highlighted the river’s ubiquity in Manila life.
The relationship between the Pasig River, the linear parks, and heritage structures on its banks is not only highly significant for its aesthetic and tourism value, but also for its rarity. The River is associated with key archaeological finds and dozens of heritage structures from different historical periods. The breadth of cultural artifacts associated with the Pasig is unquestionable.
Despite being heavily polluted, the Pasig River still retains its social value not only among those residing along its banks but to the wider Metro Manila population. It is a necessary outlet for floodwaters, managing heavy seasonal rains. In a time of climate change, with sea waters rising, the river systems are even more necessary than ever to alleviate the flooding of the metropolis. The River is an urban heat sink that helps mitigate the impacts of climate change. The River and open spaces along the riverbanks also meet intergenerational needs ranging from recreation to emotional well-being.
Archaeological and Historical Value
Assessment Criteria
1.1 The significant artifacts have been retrieved along the river’s banks.
Polished stone tools such as adzes were found in the Pasig riverbanks of Pasig City and along San Juan River, a tributary of Pasig River during Beyer’s survey in the 1920s. In 1947, evidence of habitations along the Pasig River was documented by H. Otley Beyer revealing the presence of early communities living along the river from as early as the Neolithic period (around 4000 to 2500 years ago).
1.2 The Pasig River connected pre-Hispanic Communities amongst themselves and internationally.
The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI) provides evidence of an early network of settlements within Laguna de Bay (Pailah and Puliran in LCI) and Tondo (Tundun), which can only be connected via the Pasig River (Tiongson, 2013). The Pasig River also Iinked Tagalog settlements in Laguna de Bay to the Medang Kingdom in Indonesia, mentioned in the LCI, thus confirming the prominence of the Laguna de Bay-Pasig River network in Early Maritime Southeast Asia.
The river has linked together several settlements along the Pasig River to Santa Ana de Sapa (in the pre- Hispanic period was called Namayan) a power center during the pre- Hispanic period. This confederation of riverine settlements headed by Lakan Tagkan and his wife Buwan includes the present districts of Quiapo, San Miguel, Sampaloc, and Pandacan in the city of Manila; the cities of Makati, San Juan, and Mandaluyong; and the present lakeshore municipality of of Taytay (Huerta, 1865). Archaeological investigations of 11th-to-15th-century sites in the Pasig-Taguig area also demonstrate the flourishing settlements near the rivers at that period (Vitales, 2013).
1.3 The Pasig River was a primary commercial and transport route for foreign merchants and among local communities from at least the 11th century.
From the 11th century, the Pasig River and the settlements along its banks (such as Namayan in Santa Ana, Manila) played an active part in connecting the region to the vast maritime trading network. Rich forest products that were abundant within the Laguna lakeshore areas were bartered with the Chinese and other Southeast Asian traders for porcelain ceramics among other trade goods. Evidence of Chinese and Southeast Asian ceramics and other foreign trade items in Laguna and Rizal sites, dating around the 12th to 15th centuries AD (Vitales 2013), clearly shows the importance of Pasig River as a trading channel and its sustaining role in the Pre-Colonial settlements in Manila and the neighboring provinces. Archaeological evidence of 11 th-to-15th-century settlement in Santa Ana, Manila attests to this flourishing mercantile activity. Thousands of Chinese ceramics and other foreign trade goods were excavated within and around the Santa Ana Church Complex, which was utilized as a burial ground in the past (Fox and Legaspi, 1977).
The primacy of the Pasig River in connecting inland communities with larger settlements at the mouth of the River and to foreign traders continued well into the Spanish Colonial Period. The first lighthouse in the Philippines was established at the mouth of the Pasig and a lighthouse is still found on-site. (DBpedia, n. d.) From up the Pasig, foodstuff (e. g. Rice, duck eggs, fresh fish, fruits and vegetables) were transported via cascos and paraws from the communities and production zones around and along the Pasig River and the Laguna de Bay, feeding not only Manilenos, but those living in the arrabales. In the 19th century, residents of Manila and its arabales would excursion to Laguna and Rizal, traveling upstream to Laguna de Bay, visiting destinations such as Los Banos, Santa Cruz, and Jalajala (Stevens, N. D).
1.4 The Pasig River linked important religious sites.
Along the banks of the Pasig River are sited significant churches such as the Pro-Cathedral of San Miguel, the Santa Ana Church, Guadalupe Church, and the Ermita de San Nicolas de Tolentino. Catholic Filipinos traveled the Pasig River in order to reach these sacred places (Carino, 2002) or enroute to places of pilgrimage such as Antipolo (Roces, 2008).
1.5 The Pasig River was associated with a culinary staple, balut.
Channels of the Pasig River, particularly those near the Laguna de Bay were abundant with snails, an important addition to the diet of ducks. While some eggs were made into balut, others were sent to Manila as fresh (Doeppers, 2016). Pateros has long been associated with the balut industry (Rosario, 2022).
1.6 The extant heritage houses are historical records of changing residential patterns among Colonial elites in colonial society during the 19th century and the importance of the river in supporting residential expansion.
In the 19th century, luxurious country houses owned by Spanish officials and merchants were established along the Pasig River and esteros (de Lemps, 2001). The traffic of bancas and cascos traveling up and down the river made for pleasant and lively views (Carino, 2002). Examples include Malacañang Palace and the Lichauco House.
Cultural Value
Assessment Criteria
2.1 The Pasig River played a central role in the formation of Tagalog identity.
According to a historian Dr. Lars Ubaldo (2009), the ethnonym Tagalog, which was rooted either from Taga-llog (river settlers) or Taga-álog (settlers of the flooded areas beside rivers) most likely originated around the Pasig River area where many communities have been settling. Community life and other cultural beliefs and practices revolved around the Pasig River, as observed by the Spanish when they first set foot in the region. Beliefs in death and their relationships with the spirits reflect their familiarity and dependence on the river. Ritual offerings, reverence with crocodiles as their nuno (grandparent or ancestor), and their concept of afterlife journey via rivers are some of the examples of early spiritual beliefs and practices rooted in the complex relationship between the early human communities and the Pasig River.
2.2 The Pasig River played a central role in the formation of Tagalog identity.
Jose Rizal’s Junto al Pasig is a one-act zarzuela dedicated to Our Lady of the Immaculate Concepcion, patroness of the Philippines. The Pasig River also features in the National Hero’s Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, which is required reading for all students per RA 1425.
In Noli Me Tangere, Crisostomo Ibarra proposed to his beloved, Maria Clara, on a balcony that had a view of the Pasig River. In El Filibusterismo, the Pasig River is featured heavily at the beginning of the novel wherein the Bapor Tabo was sailing along the river channel.
2.3 The Pasig River has been a source of artistic inspiration since the 19th century.
The waterway is prominently featured in the works of 19th Century artist José Honorato Lozano: “Balsas de cocos de la Laguna navegando por el rio Pasig” (1857), and “Quinta de los Generales en Malacañan a la rivera del Río Pasig” (1867) (Carino, 2002). In 1926, Filipino composer, Nicanor Abelardo, produced the classic Filipino Kundiman, entitled “Mutya ng Pasig”. A film of the same name was then produced in 1950 by his blood relative, Richard Abelardo, based on this kundiman. In the realm of Filipino paintings, renowned national artist Fernando Amorsolo, depicted the river in his work also titled “Mutya ng Pasig”.
In the last decade of the 20th century, the Pasig River persisted in the consciousness of the Filipino people. In 1998, Fran Ng won the first prize for the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for her children’s book, The Brothers Wu & The Goodluck Eel: A tale from the Philippine Islands.
The book is set in early 20th century Binondo, wherein two brothers are tasked with an errand to deliver a basket of slippers up the Pasig River. Segundo D. Matias Jr also released his own children’s book entitled “Alamat ng Ilog Pasig (Modernong Alamat)”. It is a retelling of the origin of the Pasig River, told in a more contemporary setting.
In 2017, Filipino Artists were commissioned by the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority in a partnership with the British Council in the Philippines to create artworks on pumping stations along the Pasig River. The aim of this project was to highlight how vital these pumping stations are for the riverbanks and spread awareness of the significance of the Pasig River itself. That same year, Filipino director Janus Victoria received an award from the Megacities Short Docs Film Festival.
The documentary featured Ralph Eya of the Art for Urban Change Project. Eya together and the children of Hospicio de San Jose created a mural for the Paco Pumping Station.
2.4 The Pasig River and sections of its banks are used for recreational purposes and are part of the cultural life of the people.
Linear parks on the river’s banks meet the needs of Metro Manila residents for open space. The parks are important leisure spaces for young and old alike. These include the Arroceros Forest Park in Manila, Ilaya Mini Park in Mandaluyong, the Earnshaw Linear Park in Santa Ana, Pasig Pineda Mini Park, Makati Park and Garden, and the Guadalupe Nuevo and Viejo Parks on both sides of the Guadalupe bridge along EDSA.
The River is utilized by boating teams such as the Rowing Team of the Ateneo de Manila regularly practice their craft on the river. (Zialcita, 2021) despite the worsened conditions of the waterway.
In the 17th Century, Pedro Chiniro, SJ, said that the Tagalog people loved swimming in the Pasig River. Despite issues of pollution, the River is still used for recreational swimming by urban settlers with limited financial resources.
2.5 Religious traditions are staged meters away from the Pasig River.
Long-time residents of Barangay Poblacion (Makati City) are bearers of intangible cultural heritage. The residents’ Kalbaryo tradition stretches back to the first half of the 20th century. The rituals are staged along A Bonifacio and A. Mabini streets, meters away from the River’s edge (MPHCP, 2019). This is just one example of intangible heritage I inked to the river.
2.6 Architecturally rare building typologies are sited along the banks of the Pasig River. Along the banks are rare examples of buildings constructed in the Neoclassical, Beaux-Arts, Art Deco, the riverside Bahay-na-Bato, and Accessoria styles. These include the Aduana Building, Juan Luna E- Services Building, Regina Building, the Ambrosio Padilla Ancestral House, and Coronado Heritage House. In themselves, the buildings are tangible, visual records of the development of Philippine economic and cultural history over the centuries.
Aesthetic Value
Assessment Criteria
3.1 The dialogue between the Pasig River and heritage buildings along the banks is rare in Philippine architecture.
The relationship between the building and the River is a consideration of the designer’s intent, as evidenced by building orientation, choice of material, and scale. This may be observed in structures such as the El Hogar, Calvo Building, Manila Post Office, Casa Hacienda de San Pedro Macati, Coronado Heritage House, Regina Building, Juan Luna Building, and Ermita de San Nicolas de Tolentino (Sembrano E.A.2019 and Alcazaren, 2016).
Social Value
Assessment Criteria
4.1 The unobstructed banks of the Pasig allow for river crossings.
Some Metro Manilans cross the Pasig River on bankas. The banka crossings occur due to the absence, or inaccessibility of pedestrian-friendly bridges. 15 meters away from the Mandaluyong Bridge, amidst the pandemic 2,000 to 5,000 people daily opt to pay a banka to cross the Pasig, rather than walk to and across the bridge. The bankas address the mobility needs of the community. (Renato Macapagal, personal communication, March 15, 2022).
4.2 Riverside public spaces are venues for intergenerational interaction.
Linear parks on the banks of the Pasig River attract individuals of all ages. Intergenerational relationships provide benefits to young and old alike while fostering certain values important for civic development (Baltaci, 2020). Free, public leisure spaces for intergenerational interaction are rare in Metro Manila.
4.3 Conservation of the Pasig River and open spaces along its banks may improve positive emotions among anxious urban residents.
The efforts of the PRRC and the KBPIP in cleaning up the Esteros of Paco and San Miguel led to a positive change of outlook among members of the community. In a survey done by the KBPIP on the residents of Estero de Paco, one of the main tributaries of the Pasig River, the residents indicated that they felt less sick, felt safer, and had greater pride in their community (Penaflor, 2021). The Pasig River’s value in affecting the mindset of the Filipino people may also be felt in the younger generation’s perception of ecology. The majority of youth polled in the Philippines identified themselves as “extremely” and ” very worried” with how environmental issues are handled in the Philippines (Sano, 2021). The Pasig River is a natural landscape asset which may improve the mental health of the communities along its banks.
4.4 The Pasig River is an urban heat sink.
Buildings, roads and other urban infrastructure absorb and re-emit heat more than natural surfaces, causing a concentration of heat in cities (heat island) relative to outer areas. Due to climate change, temperatures will continue to rise, compounded further by humidity, and cities can expect more heat waves. This is a big concern from a public health perspective, as it poses health risks to urban dwellers. Rivers mitigate thermal stresses. A study of the densely urbanized Pearl River Delta Metropolitan Region, China showed the blue spaces decreased surface urban heat island by 11% and benefitting residents up to 100 meters from the river (Lin et al, 2020). Retention of Pasig sans the freeway provides 1,800 square miles of an urban cool island and benefits people residing near the 25 kilometers on both banks of the Pasig.
4.5 The state has long recognized the importance and potential of the Pasig River.
As early as the 1950s, the Philippine Government began programs to revive the river. In 1989, the DENR collaborated with the Royal Danish Government on the study of water pollution with the goal of mitigation through better management. The state recognized the importance of the Pasig River with the presidential office creating these initiatives: Pasig River Rehabilitation Programme (1993, at a cost of 15 billion) and the Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission (1999).
Through its efforts, the PRRC won the Asia River Prize Award 2018 from the International River Foundation in recognition of the remarkable restoration and protection of the Pasig River (CNN Philippines, 2018). Despite being declared biologically dead in the 1990s, the Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission was able to significantly improve water quality by reducing fecal coliform count from 1.18 trillion, to 5.85 million. The Pasig River holds symbolic value amongst Filipinos. The improvement was achieved by the government, thousands of citizens, private institutions, and other stakeholders working together.
4.6 The Pasig River is a natural outlet for flood flow in Metro Manila.
The Pasig River is formed by the confluence of the Marikina River and the Napindan Channel, which is the only outlet of Laguna Lake. Water flows along the 25-kilometer-long course westward through Metro Manila, then empties into Manila Bay. During the wet season, water from the Marikina River floods into the Pasig River which then goes into Laguna de Bay through the Napindan Channel. The water that flows into Laguna Lake can then be utilized for the purposes of irrigation, industrial cooling, power generation and domestic water supply (LLDA, n. d.). The Laguna de Bay Masterplan states that about 3 billion m3 of water is available for utilization before it drains through the Pasig River into Manila Bay.
It has to be acknowledged that the Pasig River can be the source of flooding as well. The Manggahan Floodgate was constructed to mitigate this issue by redirecting the water coming from the Marikina River into Laguna de Bay, although at the expense of the communities near the lake instead.
4.7 Water-based transport complements the existing transport system.
The Pasig River is an efficient, unobstructed place to access multiple cities. Major cities like Istanbul, Bangkok, Hong Kong, and St. Petersburg have successfully combined both land and water-based transportation systems. The best evidence for the success of water transport is Venice, which relies solely on il vaporetto to ferry people around and out of the city historic core.
Rarity Value
Assessment Criteria
5.1 The Pasig River is singular for its association with the birth of the Philippine State.
While other pre-Colonial communities were located along similar bodies of water across the country (Agusan, Iloilo, Cagayan, etc.), it was along the Pasig’s banks that the Philippine capital was established over 400 years. As a body of water, the River’s association with key archaeological finds and dozens of heritage structures (buildings, colonial era homes and religious buildings, bridges, and industrial sites) from different historical periods is rare in the Philippines. The river was a source of inspiration for architects, writers, musicians, painters, filmmakers, thus demonstrating the dynamic relationship between nature, culture, and people. The breadth of cultural artifacts associated with the Pasig, as a river, is unquestionable.
Other Potential Values
Economic Value
Assessment Criteria
6.1 Economic Value
6.1.a Open public spaces along bodies of water increase land values.
The development of the Esplanade in Iloilo City has led to a rise in land values in the area. Economic and tourism activity were also boosted in the area. Prices of land beside the Esplanade rose from P2,000 to P5,000 per square meter before construction in 2012 to P15,000 to P20,000 per square meter as of 2016 (PGAA Creative Design, 2016). The Esplanade prioritizes a community and pedestrian approach to riverside development.
6.1.b Retaining the integrity of heritage buildings and districts along the Pasig River may contribute to the Creative Economy, an important contributor to post-pandemic economic recovery.
Studies by Preservation Green Labs entitled “Older, Smaller, Better” found that older, mixed-age buildings, mixed-use neighborhoods have thriving creative economies. The Heritage buildings, districts, and open spaces by the Pasig River may meet the infrastructure requirements needed by members of the creative economy. Culture and Creative Industries are recognized as important contributors to economic recovery post-pandemic. (NEDA, n. d.)
6.1.c Retaining the integrity of heritage buildings and districts along the Pasig River may contribute to increased property values of these buildings.
Properties in historic districts of the United States appreciated at a higher rate than the local market overall (Rypkema, 2008).
Tourism Value
Assessment Criteria
6.2 Tourism Value
6.2.a The Pasig River in itself is an underutilized histo-cultural tourist resource.
The Pasig River and cruises along it may be an additional tourist resource. River Cruises is offered in cities such as London, Paris, Bangkok where the local river played a pivotal role in the city’s history and cultural life. In Xochimilco, Mexico City, a gritty working-class neighborhood became a festive destination for visitors who explore the area through its canals.
6.2.b Views of heritage sites, and Metro Manila Cities in general from the Pasig River would be a new and unique tourism offering.
The heritage buildings are a visual record of life in Manila. In particular, many historic businesses & establishments ensured strategic access to the river, because this spelled better mobility through both waterways and land transportation. Not only could they receive raw materials via the Pasig or streets, but they could also deliver goods to ports, or a land address. The dialogue between the Pasig River and historic buildings along the banks is rare in the Philippines and could attract a variety of local and international tourists, particularly students and those seeking cultural experiences. •
References
Alcazaren, P. (2016, November) Makati City: the old and the new. Retrieved on April 7, 2022, from https:// www.philstar.com/lifestyle/modern-living/2016/11/12/1641655/makati-city-old-and-new
Baltaci, S. (2020, November) The Benefits of Intergenerational Relationships. European Commission Electronic Platform for Adult Learning in Europe. https://epale.ec.europa. eu/en/content/benefits-intergenerational-relationships award. Retrieved on 7, 2022
CNN Philippines. (October, 2018) Pasig River rehabilitation feat wins international April from https:// www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2018/10/17/Pasig River-rehabilitation- Asia-RiverPrize-Awards-201.html
DBpedia. (n. d.) Pasig River Lighthouse. Retrieved on April 12, 2022 from https://dbpedia.org/page/Pasig_River_Lighthouse
Laguna Lake Development Authority. (n. d) Laguna de Bay Masterplan. Retrieved on April 4, 2022 from https://web.archive.org/web/20070929113747/http://www.llda.gov.ph/masterplan.htm
Makati Poblacion Heritage Conservation Project (2019, April)
A guide map to the Sts. Peter and Paul Parish and its 48 Kalbaryo in Barangay Poblacion. Retrieved on April 4, 2022 from https://www.facebook.com/onepoblacion/photos/a.1827374844204810/2350301975245425/PGAA Creative Design. 2016, March)
Pateros a potential as exporter of exotic’ balut’, salted egg- Pacquiao. Retrieved on April 4, 2022, from https://mb.com.ph/2022/02/23/pateros-a-potential-as-exporter-of-exotic-balut-salted-egg-pacquiao/Rypkema, D. D. (2008, August)
Heritage Conservation and the Local Economy. Global Urban Development Magazine. global urban.org/GUDMag 08 Vol 4 Iss 1/Rypkema.htm# _edn 23
Sembrano, E. A. M. (2019, February) The Heritage Houses of Makati. Retrieved on April 7 2022 from https://tribune. net. ph/index.php/2019/ 02/02/the-heritage-houses-of-makati/
Iloilo Esplanade. Retrieved on April 4, 2022, from https://pgaacreativedesign.com/projects/parks-open-spaces/iloilo-esplanade Roces, A. (2008, May).
Antipolo and the Pilgrimage. Retrieved on April 7, 2022 from https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2008/05/10/61231/antipolo-and-pilgrimage Rosario, B. (2022, February)
PDF Documents
National Economic Development Authority. (n. d.) Updated Philippine Development Plan 2017 – 2022. https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/122421_Updated-PDP.pdf
Journal Articles
Waters in Nineteenth Century Manila. Philippine Studies. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/42633496?seq=2.
Yi Lin, Zifeng Wang, Chi Yung Jim, Jinbao Li, Jinsong Deng, Junguo Liu (2020) Water as an urban heat sink: Blue infrastructure alleviates urban heat island effect in mega- city agglomeration. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/6879462 De Lemps, X. H. (2001)
Lectures
Zialcita, F. (2021). Si Inang Pasig: Tapat pa rin kahit malubha na. https://www.facebook.com/icomosph/videos/2975924832657181
Sano, F. (2021). Climate Change and the Parex. Link
Penaflor, R. (2021) The Pasig River is not Biologically Dead. Link Books
Doeppers, D. F. Feeding Manila in Peace and War, 1850 – 1945. Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Carino, J. M. A. (2002). Jose Honorato Lozano Filipinas 1847. Ars Mundi.
Stevens, J. E. (n. d.). Yesterdays in the Philippines. In The Philippines Circa 1900 (pp 157 – 302). Filipiniana Book Guild, 1968.
Interviews
Renato Macapagal, personal communication, March 15, 2022
